Glucosamine sulfate
Glucosamine sulfate is used for osteoarthritis and temporomandibular joint (TMJ) arthritis. Glucosamine sulfate is also used orally in combination with other products, including chondroitin sulfate, glucosamine hydrochloride, or N-acetyl glucosamine.
Taking glucosamine sulfate orally significantly improves symptoms of pain and functionality in patients with osteoarthritis of the knee in studies lasting up to 3. Glucosamine sulfate seems to decrease pain scores by about 28% to 41% and improve functionality scores by 21% to 46%.
Glucosamine might have disease-modifying activity and slow joint degeneration in patients with osteoarthritis. Patients taking glucosamine for up to 3 years seem to have significantly less knee joint degeneration, less joint space narrowing, and significant symptom improvement when compared with placebo.
Glucosamine is an amino sugar, which is a constituent of cartilage proteoglycans. Glucosamine is required for the synthesis of glycoproteins, glycolipids, and glycosaminoglycans (also known as mucopolysaccharides). These carbohydrate-containing compounds are found in tendons, ligaments, cartilage, synovial fluid, mucous membranes, structure of the eye, blood vessels, and heart valves. In osteoarthritis, glucosamine stimulates metabolism of chondrocytes in the articular cartilage and of synovial cells in the synovial tissues. Preliminary research suggests that glucosamine inhibits protein N-glycosylation and cytokine-stimulated production of mediators of inflammation and cartilage degradation. Glucosamine seems to inhibit interleukin 1-beta, IL-1beta, which stimulates the gene expression and protein synthesis of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). Glucosamine doesn't seem to directly affect cyclooxygenase, which is responsible for anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), as well as adverse gastrointestinal effects.
Research in people with normal glucose metabolism suggests glucosamine doesn't affect insulin sensitivity or plasma glucose. Clinical research in people with type 2 diabetes and people without diabetes suggests glucosamine doesn't have any significant effect on blood glucose when given for up to 3 years.
Preliminary evidence suggests that glucosamine might have a protective effect against atherosclerosis. It seems to prevent oxidation of lipoproteins by scavenging reactive carbonyl intermediates produced by oxidized lipoproteins.
Glucosamine might have activity against human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Preliminary evidence suggests that it might inhibit the intracellular viral movement and block viral replication.